Philosophy of Man Essay

Death is a typically human event, not just a biological occurrence. It is a separating of body and soul, but it is not just the body that dies, it is the whole man. It is difficult to talk of the very moment of death, since some people who had been there, did not talk of their experience. There are some written accounts of such experiences and from these we get glimpses of the next life. [Corazon Cruz] Philosophy of man is the study of man and its philosophy in life that is subdivided into many branches such us ethics, metaphysics natural philosophy etc. PHILOSOPHY came from the Greek word PHILO meaning Love and SOPHIA meaning wisdom, French believe that PHILO means friendship rather than Love cause they believe that Love is a state of confusion, mallicious intentions mixed up w/ pure intention (attraction/physical aspect). Why does people who answers his/her superior called PILOSOPO? Before, when the Spaniards holds the Europe, some philosophers fight back by the used of printing adds, they fight w/ the used of there mind (APOCALYPS). In Philippines. Before, DR. Jose Rizal fight the Spaniards by writing things that is against to the Spaniards. Before the only people who are smart and brave enough to fight and write against the Spaniards are the Philosophers. Dr. Jose Rizal is a graduate of PHILOSOPHY in the Ateneo university Phil. and the only batch that has the same GGP or same grades which is 1. 0 or a perfect average. Rizal study Philosophy because its a good start in grasping his wants, that is to be a Lawyer, but something happened, her mother suffer from an illness and needs to be cured. So Dr. Rizal then give up being a Lawyer and he began to study Medicine for him to cure his Mother’s illness.

Nathaniel Hawthorne Essay

For the American writer Nathaniel Hawthorne the most explored theme of all his writings is the imperfect spirituality of man and the pervasiveness of sin throughout creation. Both of the stories under analysis here, Young Goodman Brown and The Minister’s Black Veil, feature a young reverend as the central character of the work and a Puritanical community in New England as the setting. Both of the tales are allegories centered on the ambiguity of human spirituality and on the ubiquity of sin in creation. Young Goodman Brown is an allegory about the deep mystery of sin, for which the author makes use of all available suggestive elements, from the setting- a deep and gloomy forest in New England, to the characters and their symbolic names- Goodman, an obvious hint at â€Å"good man†, and Faith, an equally transparent hint at religious faith, to other symbolic elements such as the staff resembling a wrinkled serpent, obviously the serpent in the Garden of Eden. Hawthorne approaches the idea of sin in his allegorical usual way, with conspicuous Biblical allusions, but also with deep psychological insight into the character’s soul and mind. He delves profoundly into human consciousness and the life of the mortal soul, highlighting the permanent conflicts between virtue and sin. In Young Goodman Brown we follow the main character on his intricate course through the dark and gloomy forest, reminding us of the Garden of Eden, and we are confronted with the grim temptations of sin in a vague, confusing setting, where the line dividing-line between dream and reality becomes very thin. It is Hawthorne’s own choice to leave the question as to whether the night’s confused events and the meeting of the community of witches was a dream or reality. Through this artifice, an essential problem is set forth- the result is that the reader has to wonder whether the sin and the fall into temptation belong to Goodman alone or whether the entire community is pervaded by sinfulness and immorality. The forest is thus a symbol for the human consciousness and for the spiritual life of man, and what Hawthorne undertakes to find out is whether everybody is actually lost on the paths of the spiritual, and which of the two –virtue or sin – is the true state of the spiritual life. Another important aspect is that in the midst of the gloominess of the forest meet for initiation into the lore of sinfulness, both the villagers who are commonly considered as virtuous and pious in everyday life, and are often set an example, and those members of the community who are normally viewed as sinners or criminals. Thus, the two main sides of spiritual life- virtue and sin are both mere appearances, whereas in the inner life of man they live together undisturbed. The Minister’s Black Veil is similar to Young Goodman Brown in many respects. Again, the centre of the story is the tormented consciousness of a young priest, who chooses to wear a symbolic black veil over his eyes, that prevents him from enjoying any kind of mortal happiness. In the end, the veil is seen as a symbol for the darkness and sinfulness that is hidden into the depths of human consciousness and that separates man from his fellows. As Goodman Brown typifies the average man, torn between virtue and sin, the minister in this story symbolizes the imperfect spirituality of man. The black veil that hides the face of the young priest is but the symbol of the outward representation of sin. According to Hawthorne, sin is inherent in the soul and is only veiled by the appearance of virtue. Sinfulness lies therefore deep within and separates all men from one another as the black veil separates the minister both from light and from communion with his fellows. Hawthorne therefore tackles mortal imperfection and the pervasive nature of sin in creation. Both stories emphasize the nature of human spirituality, at the very core of which sin and unlawfulness thrive.

The Medici Effect Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Medici Effect - Case Study Example Despite the fact that all the ideas he develops do not materialize all the times, the truth is that the ideas exist. After analyzing this person, I have concluded that the main opportunity for the person or group in the case, is the nurturing of the Medici effect, which in real sense is taking the opportunity of intersecting disciplines and cultures, and combine the existing concepts as presented by those cultures and disciples, to come up with a wide range of extraordinary ideas (Johansson, 7). The example that Johansson has given is that of the Medici family that created an intersection of cultures and disciplines through funding various kinds of experts such as poets, philosophers, painters, artists, sculptors, scientists, and architects, who in turn came together to learn and discuss from one another (Johansson, 3). Through learning, they intermarried the ideologies, perspectives and concepts to come up with a range of newly creative ideas that broke the barriers between the disciplines, and thus charted the way for revolution, growth and immense developmental advancement. To take advantage of these opportunities, I suggest that a person or group of individuals should focus on multidisciplinary integration, which entails integrating ideas from various disciplines and cultures, as opposed to isolating the disciplines and learning them independently. This is because, teaching the various disciplines differently gives rise to directional ideas, which follows a similar and common path (Johansson, 163). However, while allowing various cultures and disciplines to intersect while being studied, an opportunity arises where an individual or a group of people can generate an idea that is a hybrid of the various cultures and disciplines, which charts a new direction of development, allowing the individual or a group of individual to generate an idea that is of their own. The creation of a novel idea then generates followers, and makes the

History of Hong Kong Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

History of Hong Kong - Research Paper Example A distinctive Hong Kong identity detached from that of the mainland China has remained intact, as Gordon Mathews affirms who is a professor and an anthropologist at the Chinese University of Hong Kong. 94% of Hong Kong people are ethnic Chinese, but the unique aspect about Hong Kong people is that they do not feel a love for mainland China. 20 – 25% of Hong Kong people do, but the majority of them do not. They might utter â€Å"I love China, but it is the people I love and not the country†. Political organization Hong Kong is among the 2 specific administrative expanses of the Republic of China, the Macau being the other. It is a city-state located on the south coast of China and encircled by South China Sea and the River Pearl Delta. It is recognized for its expansive, deep natural harbor and skyline (Carroll, 2007). With a land mass reaching 1,104 (km2) and a 7 million population, Hong Kong remains one of the most densely populous areas in the world. The population of Hong Kong is 95% ethnic Chinese and 5% coming from other groups (Carroll, 2007). Hong Kong's Han Chinese mostly originates from the cities of Taishan and Guangzhou in the neighboring province of Guangdong (Carroll, 2007). Hong Kong got colonized by Britain after the 1st Opium War. Originally cramped into Hong Kong Island, the boundaries got extended to Kowloon Peninsula in stages in 1860 and later the New Territories in around 1898. It got occupied by Japan shortly after the start of the Pacific War, but the British Empire resumed control till 1997, when China took sovereignty (Carroll, 2007). The region adopted minimum government interposition under the code of positive non - interventionism on the colonial era. The period appreciably influenced the present Hong Kong culture, often called "East meets West", and an educational system that used to loosely monitor the system in England till reforms got implemented in 2009 (Carroll, 2007). Under the "one country with two systems" prin ciple, Hong Kong has a diverse political system from China. Independent judiciary of Hong Kong works under the common law structure. Hong Kong Basic Law remains constitutional document, which lays down that Hong Kong, shall possess "a high degree of autonomy" under all matters except military defense and foreign relations, which governs the political system (Carroll, 2007). Although it has a growing multi - party system, a trifling - circle electorate controls a half of its legal system. That is, the Hong Kong Chief Executive, head of government, gets chosen by an Electing Committee with 400 to 1,200 total members (Carroll, 2007). Socio - Cultural structure The Hong Kong culture can best be defined as a foundation that started with China, and developed being more influenced by British colonization. Despite the 1997 sovereignty transfer to the China Republic, Hong Kong continues to embrace an identity of its own culture. Given that the demographic preponderance of Hong Kong people, t hey are ethnically Chinese and naturally lean towards eastern type of culture, but with a dense western influence too. Majority of people in Hong Kong contemplate themselves as "Hong Konger" or "Hong Kongese" instead of "Chinese" for they feel like if they say they are Chinese, people would deliberate they are from central China, which, for many explanations, they do not like

Nursing Philosophy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Nursing Philosophy - Assignment Example At the core of nursing is patient outcomes to the extent that the wellbeing of the patient, and indeed the general public, should be at the centre of the heart of every nurse. The practice of nursing should be based on continuous professional development, respect for culture and personal views, and high ethical standards. In this respect, the nurse should be accountable, compassionate, and professional as noted by Kutin (2013). Like Florence Nightingale, I believe that nursing goes beyond profession and is, in fact, a calling. As a calling, nursing is dedicated to helping those in need with humility to the extent that the nurse must be willing to devote long hours toward work and endure stressful situations. Given that people experience different issues, are influenced by different factors (spiritual, developmental, economic, ethic, and social among others) and hold different views, patience centered care should be practiced by the nurse. In line with my values, I believe that nursing is concerned with the preservation of life. In this respect, nursing involves working as an individual and as part of a team to provide the highest possible quality of care, achieve optimal patient outcomes, and improve patient safety as noted by St. Mary’s

Control Mechanisms Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Control Mechanisms Paper - Essay Example To that end, the manager is responsible for corrective actions are needed in order to ensure that the organization (or department) is on track in terms of meeting future goals and standards of performance (Frame, 2002; Starbucks Home Page 2007). The advantage of feedforward control is the ability to predict and change the system and its elements before they affect the system. Depending on the kind of information being sought, there are a variety of tracking devices that include budgets, sales data by product line or geography, production output, quality control measures, and so on. The weakness of this control method is that variations within the system must be perfectly identified. Like other organizations, Starbucks uses feedforward control with feedback control which helps to improve performance and productivity. Feedback control is the process of evaluating performance against a set of stated objectives. Feedback control points out flaws in strategy or product offering, as well as identify changing conditions that may require an adjustment in strategy. In order for feedback control to be effective, managers at all levels of the organization receive information that is both timely and unbiased. The advantage of feedback control is that it allows the organization to control unknown disturbances. Feedback control is often used as error-controlled regulation. The negative reaction to this control is that it needs a mistake or error to appear before a manager can take corrective actions (Frame, 2002; Starbucks Home Page 2007). Concurrent control is used in database system and helps the organization to ensure that all transactions and actions are executed concurrently without violations. The positive reaction is its immediate response. In contrast to other methods, concurrent control allows immediate changes and variations if

Critical Review-EU Sovereign Debt Crisis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Critical Review-EU Sovereign Debt Crisis - Essay Example This led to the creation of debt crisis in the countries of the European Union as the volume of bad loans started to increase (5 p,2). The increase in the number of bad loans led to the formation of a bubble until the bubble finally. This gave rise to the number of loan defaulters. The economy of European Union is such that the bloodstream of the economy is the interbank facilities of the European countries. The banks of the member countries not only lent each other for new finances but also offered credit for short term requirements. The bank lost huge funds in the form of bad loans on the back of financial and economic crisis in 2008. The banks of the European Union in countries like Greece, Italy, Spain and others incurred huge losses. The liquidity crunch in the short term operational requirements raised serious concerns in the European Union (1 p,37). Due to interlink between the European economies, the increase in the number of defaulters in a member’s financial system a ffected the economy of another European nation. For example, Italy owed an amount of $366billion to France. Due to non-repayment of loans, the increase in debt for France affected the economy of Italy. The spread of the liquidity crunch among the other nations in Europe and the rippling effect of the increase in debt of the European Nations resulted into the European sovereign debt crisis (3 p,29). Adding to this was the inability of the economies of European Union to print notes. The economies of the European Union had to depend on the European Central Bank based in Frankfurt for the provision of liquidity in the European economy. The increase in debts of the European Union needed timely intervention from the authorities of the World Bank, International Monetary Fund and the European Central bank for their bail outs (4 p,59). The rise in debt securities is given below. Open market operations of the economy were encouraged by the European Central Bank as a step for bailing out the E uropean nations from debt crisis. The European central bank bought the debt of the members of Euro-zone and also purchased the government securities. The concerns on inflation were also addressed by the European central bank by absorbing the same amount of liquidity (7 p,4). The bailout package designed for the European sovereign debt crisis is given below. Evaluation and Interpretation The dependence of the European member countries on each other for credit led to a widespread sovereign debt crisis in the Euro-zone. The debt crisis led to high liquidity crunch in the European economy and the members of the European Union were in dire need of annual funding. France, for example possessed a public debt which accounted to 86% of its GDP after the world war. Taking all micro as well as macro-economic factors into consideration for France, the country had an annual requirement of around 20% of its GDP. Greece and Portugal were among the member countries which were largely affected by th e Euro debt crisis with protests and showdowns ion Athens and Lisbon (2 p,45). The requirement of annual funding for Portugal, Italy, Spain and Belgium were 20%

Livestock Husbandry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Livestock Husbandry - Essay Example Scientific processes have been developed to boost the results needed to gain maximum profit, that have incorporated, natural elements to double what is needed for the owner to articulate their efforts. Artificial insemination and the transfer of the embryo are the common measures, which have been applied to alter the desired expectation when the need is to accelerate the breed under consideration. The alteration in the genetic composition, in animal husbandry, has generated resistant breeds that are capable of adjusting to the harsh environment, while keeping at a constant the production yield acquired. The success cases are witnessed in the genetic alteration applied in cattle breeds and poultry. New breeds have been successfully developed to suit the subjections presented to attempt to establish an appropriate type. Aberdeen Angus is a breed of cattle that has been reared for the purpose of withstanding harsh conditions to produce meat (Pulling 2008, p3). This paper seeks to highli ght the husbandry system in the cattle breed with measures applied to sustain the breed in yielding better results. Development of the breed The breed was developed around the 19th century from the polled, and the black cattle doddies and hummlies. The term polled applied when referring to the breed has been used to present its appearance that they lack horns (Trow-Smith 2006, p32). The breed comes in black or red type with a distinctive white udder appearing, on fewer cases, across some breeds. The mostly known breed among the cow breed is the Black Angus with the red type rarely in variable countries (Pulling 2008, p12). Aberdeen Angus presents numerous benefits to find it suitable when conducting the husbandry process promising to be outstanding to the other cattle breeds. The breed has been applied in crossbreeding to produce breeds that give an accelerated carcass quality with an added milk production level. The distinctive feature in Aberdeen Angus is its resistance level that is proven to bear harsh weather conditions and develop a high maturity rate. The breed presents less difficulty in the husbandry process with its demand falling short of other breeds. The ravelled provisions in owning the Aberdeen Angus breed lie in maximum output from a minimal input. Characteristics The breed presents advantages in its rearing process and the measures applied in its feeding program. Firstly, the breed possesses a calving ease with the calf capable of fending from the mother within minutes of birth. The mother’s present exemplary milking ability with the instinct to provide for the calf, hence the farmer generates a high level milk production. The breed matures early and has a heightened fertility rate. It has been recorded to present a high Stayability measure, and this is advantageous in husbandry when the numbers increase to improve production. The breed is also polled hence reducing on the need to dehorn the species reducing the dangers associated with the entity. The breed is resistant to complications brought by sunburn and eye cancer. The breed has been known to produce a high quality rated meat that has developed an interest in the breed’s husbandry program. Their resistance favours a supplementary feeding program that allows them to graze and acquire external shelter. Feeding Programme The requirements needed in

Mini leadership assigment Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Mini leadership assigment - Assignment Example Likewise, this brief analysis will consider the case of Robert Webb as a function of the key decisions and actions he has made within Hilton Hotels. As stated, one of the primary goals that motivated Robert Webb was a desire to streamline and update the Hilton Hotel brand. However, rather than falling into a pitfall of making broad and sweeping changes straight away with careful insight and collaboration with key shareholders, Webb slowly delved into the issue; utilizing both a top down and a bottom up approach (Press Release 2009). In this way, Webb typified the very definition of good leadership by exhibiting his keen levels of awareness by carefully communicating and listening to key shareholders (Aptio Highlight 2012). Similarly, by taking such an approach, Webb was able to lead from below rather than dictate from the top. Due to the support and shareholder buy-in, Webb’s changes became that much easier to institute company wide. A particularly unique concept of how Robert Webb engages with his shareholders is his primary emphasis on the communication process as a means of differentiating the needs and positions of key shareholders as a way of making an informed decision based upon the facts (Hickins 2012). Whereas many flawed leaders are quick to rush to judgment based on incomplete information and still others are fearful to act on any type of information for fear of making a mistake, Webb appears to split the difference between such positions nicely be actively seeking out knowledge and input from his shareholders and then after considering this at length – acting upon it. Says Webb of this process: â€Å"We’re only able to solve this with truthful, honest communication,† Webb says. â€Å"When people say ‘This is hard, I’m not sure I’m with you anymore,’ you need to get everyone to remember it’s about one team, one vision, and let’s get

Summary of article on human intelligence or memory Essay

Summary of article on human intelligence or memory - Essay Example How alcohol affects the brain and the impact of heavy drinking on the brain and memory has always been a topic of research. Well, there are several factors that determine the severity of the affect of alcohol on the brain. Some of the factors include the quantity of alcohol being consumed by a person, age, gender and his or her general health status. Alcohol consumption can have noticeable impairments in memory only after a few drinks. And as the amount of alcohol consumption increases, the degree of impairment also increases accordingly. If one consumes alcohol regularly in an empty stomach, it can create a blackout and the drunken person fail to recall the events, if any. Blackouts have been found to be a common symptom among social drinkers regardless of age, and sex. A survey conducted on college undergraduates revealed that 51 percent experienced blackouts in some point in their lives while 40 percent experienced blackout one year before the survey ("Alcohol’s damaging effects," 2004). Many students however, reported that they could not even remember events such as vandalism, driving and unprotected sex. Both men and women experience black outs. A new research study reveals that regardless the amount of alcohol consumed, women’s tendency to black outs is more than males. And the result also shows that there is a significant difference in alcohol metabolism in males and females. In addition, the result shows that females may be more susceptible to alcohol than males. Does the above outcome show that women are more vulnerable to alcohol’s effects on the brain? Well, many studies reveal that women are more vulnerable than men. Alcoholic women develop various problems including cirrhosis, heart muscle damage and nerve damage. However, studies regarding the sensitivity to alcohol-induced brain damage in men and women have not been as convincing yet. However, brain shrinkage

The Power of a Magnifying Glass Essay Example for Free

The Power of a Magnifying Glass Essay The magnification of a magnifying glass depends upon where it is placed between the users eye and the object being viewed, and the total distance between them. The magnifying power is equivalent to angular magnification (this should not be confused with optical power, which is a different quantity). The magnifying power is the ratio of the sizes of the images formed on the users retina with and without the lens.[3] For the without case, it is typically assumed that the user would bring the object as close to the eye as possible without it becoming blurry. This point, known as the near point, varies with age. In a young child it can be as close as 5 cm, while in an elderly person it may be as far as one or two metres. Magnifiers are typically characterized using a standard value of 0.25 m. The highest magnifying power is obtained by putting the lens very close to the eye and moving the eye and the lens together to obtain the best focus. The object will then typically also be close to the lens. The magnifying power obtained in this condition is MP0 =  ¼ÃŽ ¦ + 1, where ÃŽ ¦ is the optical power in dioptres, and the factor of  ¼ comes from the assumed distance to the near point ( ¼ m from the eye). This value of the magnifying power is the one normally used to characterize magnifiers. It is typically denoted mÃâ€", where m = MP0. This is sometimes called the total power of the magnifier (again, not to be confused with optical power). Magnifiers are not always used as described above, however. It is much more comfortable to put the magnifier close to the object (one focal length away). The eye can then be a larger distance away, and a good image can be obtained very easily; the focus is not very sensitive to the eyes exact position. The magnifying power in this case is roughly MP =  ¼ÃŽ ¦. A typical magnifying glass might have a focal length of 25 cm, corresponding to an optical power of 4 dioptres. Such a magnifier would be sold as a 2Ãâ€" magnifier. In actual use, an observer with typical eyes would obtain a magnifying power between 1 and 2, depending on where lens is held. Using this principle, a magnifying glass can also be used to focus light, such as to concentrate the suns radiation to create a hot spot at the focus.

Definition of tourism

Definition of tourism Introduction 1.1 Background of study Tourism is the activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes. In 21st century, travel is a common thing for people, but in the past people hard to travel from place to place because lack of transportation and technology. Travel defines as people moving from one place to another. People travel because of pull and   push factor ,push and pull factor are influence by lots of factors such as economic ,social, climate, geographical characteristic and etc. spatial movement is very important and worth our attention, it focusing on tourist generating areas and tourist receive areas as well as the transit route between its. To do so, I have adopted Leipers model, which was suggested in 1979 and adapted in 1995 (Figure 1). Tourist flow is a flows or spatial interaction between places, with the destination area containing a surplus of a commodity and the generating area having a demand for a commodity. It influenced by a variety of push and pull factors. Batu Ferringhi located on the northern coast of Penang, Malaysia. This place is chosen as one of the attraction places in Penang because of the sandy beach and luxury resort.   The only entrance by land to go to Batu Ferringhi is the narrow mountains road. Penang Hill or affectingly known by locals as Bukit Bendara, is one of the only cool places to visit in Penang. A hill with elevation of about 833 m (2723 ft) has proved that it is one of the main attractions not only to the foreigner but also locals. 1.2Research statement The study of tourist flows can be very important because by understanding the travel movement, government or the private sector can create a new marketing strategic to attract more tourists. By studying the geographic characteristics of exiting tourist, it can reveal the potential market, such as ecotourism, heritage tourism and etc. 1.3Research Questions What is the tourist pattern? What are the most famous attraction places in Penang? Where is the most of the tourist come from? What is the tourist flow of Batu Ferringhi and Penang Hill 1.4 Study Methology Stage 1: Preliminary Stage On this stage, study background and the scope of study will be written down; goal and researchs objective will be set up so that it can make the research path clearer beside that literature review and the significance of the research will be written down. Survey questionnaires will be designated in this stage. (Refer to figure 2) Stage 2: The Data Collection The method use in the research will be quantitative so that more information from the tourists will be getting by conduct survey questionnaire. The data collection will be dividing into two, primary and secondary. For primary data collection, survey and interview will be conduct so that can know more about tourist travel pattern, I also will interview with the stalls seller or shop in Batu Ferringhi and Penang hill. For secondary, information will be get from books, journals and internet. (Refer to figure 2) Stage 3: Analysis and Synthesis On the stage, the survey questionnaire will be compile and using the SPSS (the statistics software) to create the graph or statistics. Beside that, the tourist flows network in Penang will be created. (Refer to figure 2) Stage 4: Recomendation In this stage, the recommendation how to improve the tourism in Batu Ferringhi and Penang hill, how to solve the impact of tourist flows. So that, the tourism is Batu Ferringhi and Penang hill will not face the decline stage or over crowded in one place. (Refer to figure 2) 1.5Goal The goal of this study is to identify the tourist movement patterns and to solve the impact influence by tourist flows. 1.6 Study Objectives The major objectives that will be indentified are: To indentify the travel pattern of tourist in Batu Ferringhi and Penang Hill To indentify which country tourist come to Batu Ferringhi and Penang Hill To indentify the major influences of tourist movement in Batu Ferringhi and Penang Hill 1.7 Hypothesis The number of tourist going to Batu Ferringhi and Penang hill The development in Batu Ferringhi and Penang hill will be increase. Lots of tourist coming from Europe country and Middle East. 1.8 Significance of study The significances of the research for the tourism department and the private sector are they can use the research as reference so that the can understand the tourist flows in Penang beside that, they can implement new marketing strategic to get more profit .other than that, by knowing the tourist pattern ,government can locate more resources to the place. By doing the research, a statistic report will be written out, it will benefit to future researcher to conduct the same research. The research also will help the developer to develop the place after they review the statistic. 1.9 Scope of study The two major barriers are time and seasonal .Time is a barrier for my research although I have limited time to complete it because need to analyze the survey and finding reference sources. Tourism is a seasonal so the research will not accurate when the time goes by so time management very important. 1.10 Study area The study area chosen for my research is Batu Ferringhi and Penang hill. Batu Ferringhi also called as the foreigners rock is a strip of beaches on the northern coast of Penang .The only way to go up is the narrow mountain road, there are two entrance one is from Tanjung Bunga and another one is from Teluk Bahang . Batu Ferringhi also is one of the tourist attraction place in Malaysia, a lot of foreigner tourist like to stay at here, on top of the hill also got a lot of chain hotels group example Shangri la hotel group, holidays inn and Parkroyal hotel. Other than that, there also have a lot of transportation company, they always stand by to pick up the guest go to down town. Beside that there also have a lot of souvenir shop so that the tourist can buy souvenir to their friends and relatives. Everyday there also have night market, the most special trends in the night market is bargaining. Batu Ferringhi is high tourists flows area in Malaysia because of the environments and the people are hospitality .The high tourist flow also give positive and negative impact to the place such as pollution, traffic congestion, increase in price and etc. When peak season, Batu Ferringhi will over crowded and is a main issue for the local government. Another place chosen is Penang hill, Penang Hill is the oldest hill station in Malaysia. It comprises a hilly granite mass in the middle of Penang Island reaching an elevation of 833 meters (2723 ft) at Western Hill. Penang hill also is the only cool place in Penang and it is famous not only for foreigners but locals. There are three way going up to Penang hill, by the funicular train, by jeep and by hiking. Theoretical Framework Chapter 2 2.0 Literature Review Tourist flows are a form of spatial interaction between two areas, with the destination area containing a surplus of a commodity example tourist attraction and the generating area having a deficit or demand for that commodity (Tourism and hospitality Geography). Tourist flows do not occur randomly but follow certain rules and are influenced by a variety of push and pull factors. Push factors are mainly concerned with the stage of economic development in the generating are and will include such factors as levels of affluence, mobility and holidays entitlement .Often, too, an advanced stage of economic development will not only give the population the means to engage in tourism but the pressures of life will provide the push to do so .An unfavorable climate will also provide a strong impetus to travel. Pull factors include accessibility and the attractions and amenities of the destination area. The relative cost of the visit is also important, as is the effectiveness of marketing and promotion. From a geographical point of view tourism consists of three major components which are ; first , the places of origin of tourist ,or generating areas;second,the tourist destinations themselves ,or receiving area and finally the routes travelled between these two sets of locations, or transit routes   (Leiper 1995).These components are set within differing economic ,environmental and social contexts . This simple model is illustrated in figure 3. Tourist generating area represent the homes of tourist ,where journeys begin and end .the key issues to examine in tourist generating areas are the features that stimulate demand for the tourism and will include the geographical location of an area as well as its socioeconomic and demographic characteristic .These areas represent the main tourist markets in the world   and naturally enough ,the major marketing functions of the tourist industry are found here such as tour operation, travel retailing. Tourist receiving areas attract tourists to stay temporarily and will have features and attractions that may not be found in the generating area. The tourist industry try located in this areas will comprise the attractions, accommodation, retailing and service functions, entertainment and recreation facilities .In our view, tourist destination areas are the most important part of the tourism system, not only attracting the tourist and thus energizing the system but also where the impacts of tourism occur and therefore where the sustainable planning and management of tourism is so important. Transit route link these two types of areas and are a key elements in the system as their effectiveness and characteristic shape the volume and direction of tourist flows. Transit route also represent the transportation component of the tourist industry. There are three different routes from place of permanent residence to tourist route, refer to figure one, tourist can choose their route to the destination, access route mean direct access to the main destination as same as return routes .For recreation route, the tourist make use of the various tourist facilities along the way to the destination .Some of the tourist just use the recreation route for part of the journey, they dont have main goal or destination. There are three routes for the tourist to come to Penang, there are water, air and land transport but for Batu Ferringhi ,it just can go by land because no one is providing the air and land transport for the tourist. This notion is developed in Campbells (1967) model which portrays different patterns of movement away from an urban centre (Figure 5). Campbell distinguishes between various groups on the basic of the relative importance of the travel and stay components of their trip .for the recreationist the recreational activity itself is the main element while for the vacationist the journey as such constitutes the main activity of the trip, with a number of stopovers being made on a round trip away from the city .An intermediate group, the recreational vacationist ,is shown to make side trips from some regional base. According to figure 5, recreational travel is scattered radically from the city whereas vacation travel is essentially linear and highway oriented, with recretional vacational travel involving elements of both Campbells work. While the concepts of these different types of travel is useful for analyzing tourist flow patterns there are clearly semantic problems in restricting the ter m tourist or vacationist to someone whose primary interest is invariably in sightseeing and travelling. Source from: redrawn from Campbell (1967)    In Miossecs model ( Figure 6), the origin or core is surrounded by four major belts or zones and travel motives ,means and costs change as well ( Sector 1) .In the real world these theoretical   regular concentric zones are subject to modification by position deformation    (low cost of living, favorable climate, historic links) which extend the belts and the negative ones (essentially political) which compress them (sector 2amd 3).These positive and negative deformation are not independent .More over, in reality a series of core exists giving rise to concurrent spatial demand ( sector 4). Miossec also attempts to incorporate perception of  Ã‚   this space in his model, although the schematic representation of this is not particularly clear .In general .knowledge of destination   declines with distance but there may be certain points of reference or evocative names so that the individuals mental map of the tourist space has both concentric and sectoral constrains .Mioss ec also suggests that the quality of the image will depend on the socio-political linguistic environment of the point of departure and arrival. Source: After Thurot( 1980) Four broad tourist destination types are identified by Lubdgren in this way (figure 10): Centrally located metropolitan destination which have high volume of reciprocal traffic and function both as a generating area and a major destination. These include high order metropolitan centres well integrated into the international and transcontinental transport networks. Peripheral urban destination ,which have smaller populations, a less important central place function and which tend to have a net inflow of tourists Peripheral rural destinations, which are less nodal in character, depending upon a geographically more extensive environment which draws visitors through a combination of landscape characteristic. As the population of such areas is often small and dispersed, a strong net inflow usually results. Natural environment destinations which are usually located at long distances from the generating areas very sparsely populated and often subject to strict management policies. Chapter 3 3.0 Research methodology 3.1 Introduction In this chapter, procedures or method used to conduct research will be set up; there are two types of research methodologies, these two types of methodologies are quantitative and qualitative. During the research, quantitative will be used, quantitative research is to determine the relationship between one thing (an independent variable) and another (a dependent or outcome variable) in a population. As for research design, descriptive research will be use in the research, it attempts to describe and explain conditions of the present by using many subjects and questionnaires to fully describe a phenomenon. 3.2 Data collection 3.2.1 Primary data The primary data are data which are being collected by the researcher for that specific purpose of answering the problem in the research. For this research, questionnaires will be distributed to get information or answer after compile will key in to SPSS (the statistic software). Statistic and graph will be draft. 3.2.2Secondary data The secondary data is being obtained by the literature study, books and the articles from the internet source. 3.3 Questionnaire method A questionnaire is defined as a form that people fill out used to obtain demographic and views and interests of those questioned (Brehob 2001).Questionnaires is use in this research to get more information and to get feed back from the people, questionnaire encompassed of a series of questions for the purpose of gathering data or information from potentially a large number of respondents. Below are the advantages of using questionnaire method: The responses are gathered in a standardized way, so questionnaires are more objective, certainly more so than interviews. Generally it is relatively quick to collect information using a questionnaire Potentially information can be collected from a large portion of a group. These are the few steps taken to design questionnaire for dissertation purpose (dspace.fsktm.um.edu.my): Objectives of the survey are defined Determined the sampling group Designed the questionnaire by creating the questions Administered the questionnaire Results interpretations 3.3.1 Questionnaire design A well designed questionnaire is important, language and using propel sentence to construct questionnaire must be taken well beside that arrangement of the question also need be in correct flows. The sentence or question using must be easy to understand and the words must be clear. The research questionnaire will be at appendix 1 and 2. 3.3.2 Questions In designing the questionnaire, the question that inside the survey questionnaire cant be too complicated and direct question needed to ease the correspondents. On questionnaire consist of 16 questions. The questionnaire of this research contains of part A, Part B, Part C and Part D. The questionnaire divides into sub topic because to let the correspondents more understand about the question and it look more systematic. The questionnaire will be at appendix 1 and 2. 3.3.3 Layout Layout is very important because first impression when the correspondents see the questionnaire is the formation of the question, the layout must be attractive enough to attract the correspondents. Other than that, the logical of sequence of the question also very important, same kind of question need to group together. (Refer to Appendix 1 and 2) 3.3.4 Questionnaire Distribution The survey questionnaire were distributed to respondents manually, mean that, a team of people will approach them. For Dissertation minimum of 150 correspondents needed to complete the survey. Those questionnaires will distribute in Batu Ferringhi and Penang hill but not all of the questionnaire distributed will returned with full of participation because some of them not really interested with the topic or maybe they have limited knowledge about the topic and there where no any reward or gift for them after they finish the questionnaire The objective of distributing questionnaire is to knowing the tourist flows in two Areas, there are Batu Ferringhi and Penang Hill beside that also can know what is the tourist opinion and suggestion. 3.3.5 Software Development Methodology After compiling all the result from the questionnaire, the result will key in into the SPSS (the statistic software) after that statistic and graph will be drawn out. In the Statistic and graph, it can determine that the number of tourist flow and which country tourist most often come to visit those places. 4.0 Conclusion This research is discussed about the tourist flows in Batu ferringhi and Penang hill.

Principles of Effective Offender Intervention

Principles of Effective Offender Intervention Introduction From way back in history, the process of correcting those who were believed to be wrong in a way or another was practiced. Communities are guided by certain morals, and whenever one goes against the morals, it is believed that the person might have a problem and it is only good to deal with the problem before it escalates. People are different; whereas there are people who can change by just being advised to do so, there are some who need intense programs to change. Correcting young ones so that they can be part and parcel of the bigger community is a process that must be guided by principles. The four principles are meant to intervene and help the targeted persons to be better people in the society. The four principles of intervention There are four different principles of intervention that are used in making sure that some of the young law offenders are helped to become better people in the society (Guevara, 2009). The four principles are more in a sequence because one must follow the other if good results are to be achieved. Effecting one principle in the absence of the previous might produce different results which might be opposite of the expectations of the community or the program. For a lot of years, the four principles have been used in many correction facilities, and they have produced tremendous results. Risk principle Offenders are divided into different groups as far as risk is concerned; low-risk and high-risk offenders. Low-risk offenders are offenders who do not pose a great threat to the community as well as to themselves. When it comes to such offenders, all that is needed is minimal coaching or minimal intervention for them to fit back into the community. For example, an offender who has been involved in a quarreling that resulted in violence is not a high-risk offender. The reason for stating so is because the offender might have acted out of frustration but not under motivation or passion. Therefore, the attention and resources needed to bring back such a person on the track are minimal. At the same time, the person is not a threat to him or her life. The second group consists of high-risk offenders. These types of offenders are not only a risk to the community but themselves. When it comes to attending to them, a lot of resources are required. The interventions used must also be in line with their needs. Risk principle calls for prioritization of resources in line with the risk of the offender. For example, a person who possesses a risk to a larger community cannot be treated like a person who possesses lesser risk. The methods of intervention used on a riskier person also differ in some ways (TJRC, 2016). The principle helps in addressing cases with all the seriousness they deserve. The principle is effective and reasonable. For example, a person who is used to involving him or herself in criminal activities needs a more effective intervention method. The reason for doing so is because a lesser effective method cannot help him or her. The intervention methods are not meant to punish but to change. Allowing continuous offenders back to the community with the expectations that he or she will change is not helping him or her in any way. Since he or she has proven to be risky, it is only good to make sure that more resources are used so as to make the intervention effective. Need principle Need principle states that the needs of the offenders should be considered in any given intervention process. The need might be direct or indirect. Some people are forced by circumstances to engage in criminal activities. In most cases, they lack a thing or two, and that is why they end up doing what they do. What they lack is what is referred to as a need. The principle states that for a person not to go back to his or her old ways, the need must be satisfied. A person might end up being a criminal for lack of education and knowledge on certain issues. Taking that person through a correctional facility and bringing him or her back to the society only solves part of the problem. Therefore, it is important to enlighten that person on the issues that he or she might not be familiar with so that he or she cannot go back to his or her old ways. The environment, on the other hand, can influence one towards committing a crime. When the environment of the offender is not looked into, the offender is taken back to the same risks after corrections, and that might not bear the expected results. For example, if a person lives in an environment where people live by the gun and earn from illegal activities, taking him or her back to such an environment is exposing him or her to risks (Edward Jennifer, 2004). The principle is effective because it tries to look for a lasting solution in the process of making sure that an offender gains from an intervention program. Helping people and not looking at what they lacked for them to commit a crime is dealing with the problem partially. The best way to make sure that criminals do not get back to their old ways is dealing with the causes, and that means looking at the needs and satisfying them. Treatment principle The treatment principle emphasizes the need to look for the most effective treatment strategy. The principle concentrates much on the high-risk offenders. An offender must go through some effective treatments for him or her to be accepted back in the community. Factors to consider when it comes to treatment are the type of treatment, the interval of treatment, and the length of the treatment. A person who is of great danger to the community must be treated in a different way. Though the main reason why the offender is taken in a correctional facility is not to be punished, a high-risk offender must be treated in a way that he or she will never admire hurting himself or others. The treatment must be intense and if the need calls it must take a longer period so that he or she can be ready to fit in the community after the treatment. There are different offenders, and they are motivated to engaging in criminal activities by different reasons. Some are criminals because they are failed by their brain. In such cases, the treatment must be special and different from others. Regardless of him being a high-risk offender, the person also has a mental health condition. In such a case, double care is required (Guevara, 2009). The facility or the parties involved might choose to provide both psychiatric help and at the same time correctional help. By so doing, the offender gets his or her sanity back and is helped to avoid getting into trouble shortly. The principle is effective because it considers the nature of the offender. By considering the nature of the offender, it becomes easy to help a person with a series of problems by knowing the best way to treat him or her. Fidelity principle Fidelity principle states that the program must be run by people who follow the rule of law and whose integrity cannot be compromised (Edward Jennifer, 2004). It is important to know that the offenders need help and there is no way of doing it better than taking them through a program. The person running the program should leave the responsibility of correcting to the service providers, and he or she should not be bribed to grant favors to some of the law offenders. The principle is effective because it makes sure that any offender goes through the program and benefits from it without any shortcut. Conclusion The four principles guide offenders towards using the most effective ways in gaining help. At the same time, they guide the service providers towards being effective and taking care of the offenders on humane ways of doing things. Though the four principles have dwelt so much on programs and services, their main aim is to help the law offenders so that they can be people who can be accepted back into the community. They are in place to make sure that most humane means are used to correct the offenders. At the same time, they make sure that each offender is provided with help that is suitable to his or her behaviors. References Edward, J. Jennifer, A. (2004). Applying the principles of effective intervention to juvenilecorrectional programs. Retrieved from http://cjonline.uc.edu/resources/criminal-justice Research/applying-the-principles-of-effective-intervention-to-juvenile-correctional programs/ Guevara, M. (2009). Implementing Evidence-Based Policy and Practice in Community Corrections, 2 Nd Edition. Retrieved from http://b.3cdn.net/crjustice/92d6c98633d1448ff0_cfm6iiq27.pdf The Justice Research Center. (2016). What Works Principles. Retrieved fromhttp://thejrc.com/wwi-principles.asp

Great Gatsby 2 :: essays papers

Great Gatsby 2 F. Scott Fitzgerald is an author who is distinguished for his use of symbolism in his literature, like in the novel The Great Gatsby. He uses the image of Doctor T. J. Eckelburg's eyes to symbolize a godlike being. Fitzgerald uses the symbol of the two women in yellow at Gatsby's party to represent the values of the 1920's. The food provided at Gatsby's party symbolically represents the members of 1920's society. F. Scott Fitzgerald uses Symbolism in the novel The Great Gatsby as an accurate reflection of life in the American 1920's. In The Great Gatsby the symbol of T. J. Eckelburg's eyes represent a godly being watching over society. Fitzgerald incorporates the eyes into his novel to represent a pair of all seeing, all knowing and judging eyes, which are meant to intimidate. The character of George Wilson believes that the eyes are the eyes of God. "I spoke to her," he muttered, after a long silence. "I told her she might fool me but she couldn't fool God. I took her to the window- " With an effort he got up and walked to the rear window and leaned his face pressed against it, "-and I said 'God knows what you've been doing, everything you've been doing. You may fool me but you can't fool God!' " Standing behind him Michaelis saw with a shock that he was looking at the eyes of Doctor T. J. Eckleburg, which had just emerged pale and enormous from the dissolving night. "God sees everything," repeated Wilson. (p.167) Through Wilson's beliefs Fitzgerald explains that the eyes can see everything including Myrtle's infidelities. Myrtle is a typical person of the 1920's. She has put her own life and interests ahead of everyone else's including her husband's. The eyes of God are frowning down on the 1920's society. But above the grey land and the spasms of bleak dust which drift endlessly over it, you perceive, after a moment, the eyes of Doctor T. J. Eckleburg. The eyes of Doctor T. J. Eckleburg are blue and gigantic-their retinas are one yard high. The look out of no face but, instead, from a pair of enormous yellow spectacles which pass over a non-existent nose...his eyes, dimmed a little by many painless days under sun and rain, brood on over the solemn dumping ground.(p.27-28) Through Fitzgerald's wording in describing the image of Eckleburg's eyes the reader develops a mental image of an omnipotent being who is constantly watching over the land. The reader discerns that the eyes not only see everything but that they eyes are morbidly unhappy.

Buddhist Views :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In the essay â€Å"A Buddhist Response to the Nature of Human Rights†, Inada outlined the distinctly different views of human rights held by the west and the east. The western view of human rights to be based on â€Å"hard relationship†, while his description of the eastern view is that of â€Å"soft relationship†. The hard relationship is based on physical form and distinctly individualistic. The soft relationship is more inclusive encompassing an individual surrounding. These views are derived from the main religions of their respective parts of the world. The religions in these cases are Judo-Christianity and Buddhism. The understanding of the relationships relate directly from the beliefs or teaching held by the respective religions and the derived psychology. The main religion of the Western World is Christianity whose root is based in Judaism. The base of the beliefs rests in the Creator who made an individual person and gave each a single soul. With this belief, a person is considered a complete entity. Combined with the notion that a man was created in the image of the Creator and in the monotheistic sense, this inevitably leads to the essence of a complete physical being as well. The view for an individual rights therefore is perceived to be individualistic for a person as a unit. This is further demonstrated with the concept of â€Å"all men were created equal†. A person’s human rights can be thus defined and is finite within a social setting. The implication of theses determined rights are often exhibited in the phrase: â€Å"God’s given rights†. The â€Å"hard relationships† as view toward human rights in western society can be directly attributed to this physical form with a unique and single sou l. The eastern view toward human rights is considered to be the soft relationships. These views are clearly seen and understood through the Buddhist beliefs. A focus of the Buddhist teaching or Dhamma resides in the precept that there is no self, no ego, and no soul. All is conditioned to change and therefore nothing is permanent. An individual’s action affects his surrounding and vice versa. An individual is conditioned by his experience and inherits the results of his past actions, kamma (karma in Sanskrit). Building upon these concepts, a Buddhist is continuously striving for personal improvement and eventually the ultimate perfection. Human nature is understood to be less than perfect and an individual is responsible for his own action in molding his own destiny.

The Anglo-saxon Literature Essay -- essays research papers

In the Anglo-Saxon literature, the scop has a privilege of retaining history, culture and social values of that society. In many cases the scop exercises the power to create stories which reflect the values of that society. The Rood in the  ¡Ã‚ °The Dream of the Rood ¡Ã‚ ± also tells a story of which affects its society and people. The existence of this witness that reports the suffering and the glorification of Christ proves necessary for the people to believe. The Rood becomes a hero that preserves an event that proves crucial to the society. As the Rood observes the suffering of Christ, it also shares with him the pains of crucifixion. In other words, the Rood takes part in Christ ¡Ã‚ ¯s crucifixion which pertains to the salvation of the souls. Although the Rood declares its god-like qualities along with Christ, there ¡Ã‚ ¯s a distinction between Christ and the Rood. Therefore, the Rood appears as a metonymic figure which represents the Christ ¡Ã‚ ¯s suffering but it doe s not represent Christ. In fact, the Rood assumes the role of Christ as it demands people to worship it. In this poem, the Rood appears as an Anglo-Saxon hero. However, the Rood fails to share the Christian beliefs when it declares the entity of God along with Christ. Although Christ and the Rood shared the  ¡Ã‚ °innocent ¡Ã‚ ±Ã‚ ¡Ã‚ ¯ suffering together, this does not provide an adequate explanation for the Rood to become a replacement of Christ. Indeed, the Rood appears as a hero in the Anglo-Saxon society for it reflects the values of many figures that suffer with their Lord. The Rood shares the suffering endured by Christ. It does not regret its pains but sympathizes with Christ as it brings unto itself the hostilities directed at Christ. Thus, it states,  ¡Ã‚ °[how] they mocked at us both ¡Ã‚ ±( ¡Ã‚ °The Rood ¡Ã‚ ±, 51). Suffering with the members of the community proves important to a hero in the Anglo-Saxon literature. In  ¡Ã‚ °The Battle of Maldon, ¡Ã‚ ± a band of warriors fight to save their community, more specifically, fight to  ¡Ã‚ °serve the Earl ¡Ã‚ ±(The Battle of Maldon, 11). Bryhtnoth is the Earl of these brave warriors who fight unto death in order to carry out their duty. This duty indicates that one does not desert a battleground and retreat in order to save one ¡Ã‚ ¯s life. Therefore, the heroes share the battlefield alongside their lord and fight until they win or die. Like these heroes of the Maldon, the Rood remains steadfast in sh... ...st did not have in mind for the people to worship a tree.  ¡Ã‚ °The Rood ¡Ã‚ ± states its separate entity from Christ.  ¡Ã‚ °The Tree of Victory ¡Ã‚ ± becomes itself a figure that must be worshipped by its people. In fact, the Anglo-Saxon society views its heroes as gods through the scops of the society. In Anglo-Saxon literature, scops acquire the power to influence and preserve their tradition, history and culture. The scops glorify the heroes of their times according to their deeds which uphold the values of that society. In addition, the scops give the heroes of their society power to be immortal. They honor their heroes as gods and inevitably honor the values that these heroes uphold. The Rood is one of the Anglo-Saxon heroes that represents the importance of sacrifice of enduring crucial suffering in order to benefit its society. Regardless of its former status, the Rood ¡Ã‚ ¯s deeds reinforce the values of the Anglo-Saxon sense of loyalty that makes them fearless in the face of wierd. In the face of the approaching death, these heroes are portrayed as honoring their community more than their lives. Thus, by remembering and worshipping these heroes, the Anglo-Saxons tend to honor their society.

Stylistic Potential of the English Noun

STYLISTIC POTENTIAL OF THE ENGLISH NOUN Table of Contents Introduction-3 Chapter One. Stylistic resources of grammatical units on the basis of the English Noun -6 1. 1 Functions of the language and connotative meanings-7 1. 2 Grammatical Stylistics and Stylistic Grammar-9 1. 3 The meaning of the grammatical form-10 1. 4 Noun in different functional styles -10 1. 5 Stylistic potential of the English noun-11 1. 5. 1 Stylistic potential of the category of gender-11 1. 5. 2 Stylistic potential of the category of number-26 1. 5. Stylistic potential of the category of case-30 1. 5. 4 Stylistic potential of the category of article determination-34 Chapter Two. Analysis of examples taken from fiction on the basis of considered theoretical phenomena-42 2. 1 Analysis of the examples regarding the category of gender-43 2. 2 Analysis of the examples regarding the category of number-53 2. 3 Analysis of the examples regarding the category of case-55 2. 4 Analysis of the examples regarding the cate gory of article determination -59 Conclusions-66 Reference list-69 Introduction Nowadays learning a foreign language implies its active practical mastering, what, in its turn, is quite impossible to do grasping just the system of a language, its standard grammar, language factors which correspond only to the literary norms. Do we always stick to the rules while speaking in our native language? The answer will be no. Why do we break them? By doing this deliberately we may express our attitude to what we are saying. We must â€Å"know the grammar† to make effective word and stylistic choices when we speak and write. At the same time, breaking grammar â€Å"rules† or conventions can be appropriate when rhetorical considerations of audience and purpose call for it. For example, we don't use the same â€Å"grammar† to write an Instant Message as we do to write an English paper. So this aspect of learning any language should not be neglected. The approach that would be more effective in this case is functional. Functions of the language are indissolubly connected with the usage of any of its elements. In other words, the emergence of connotative meanings depends on the functions of the language. The functional approach requires first of all revealing stylistic resources of the language units of its different levels including the grammatical ones. The latter are the object of the new branch of linguastylistics Grammatical Stylistics which basic aim implies study of stylistic means (both expressive and functional) of grammatical units. It can be subdivided into morphological and syntactical one. If the stylistic means of Syntax are not usually cast upon doubt, those of Morphology on the contrary are. In the project there was made an attempt to demonstrate that the reason for this is the result of insufficient study. The other objectives of the present work are: to consider, compare different points of view of linguists concerning the object of study; to organize the material according four nounal categories; to show the stylistic purpose of the usage of studied phenomena; to illustrate connotative meanings of the considered grammatical forms; to put the considered theory into practice. As to the methods used in the project, the following ones have been applied: comparative (there was made an attempt to consider different linguists’ opinions concerning certain linguistic phenomena); analytical (on considering 36 literal texts there were picked up plenty of examples, that were organized according four nounal categories and analyzed basing on the research made in the theoretical part). In the thesis there was made an ttempt to organize the material on the stylistic potential of the English Noun considering the following four nounal categories: the category of gender, the category of number, the category of case and the category of article determination. This work consists of two chapters. The first one deals with the functional approach to learning a foreign language, with the relatively new science Grammatical Stylistic. The purpose of this chapter is to reveal what has caused its appearing by considering different opinions of linguists and to illustrate the s tylistic potential of the English Noun on the basis of some grammatical categories. There were considered rules concerning certain linguistic phenomena, but most of the work is focused on what causes their violation (cases of transposition, neutralization). All the linguistic phenomena discussed in this chapter are illustrated in the second one by means of about 200 cases that have been taken from the works that belong to the belles-lettres style (tales, poetry, short stories) written by such famous English and American writers of 18-20 centuries as Blake W. , ColeridgeS. T. , Munro H. , Poe A. A. , Hemingway E. , Salinger J. D, etc. The aim of this chapter is to put the considered theory into practice showing the way the phenomena have been dealt with work out. The examples are organized also according the four nounal categories mentioned above in the following way: Examples regarding the category of gender (2. 1) (Here we distinguish two groups: (1)A neuter noun used as feminine; (2)A neuter noun used as masculine, explaining the purpose of changing the gender); Examples regarding the category of number (2. ) (In this paragraph we consider some cases when proper, abstract, material nouns are used in the plural form); Examples regarding the category of case (2. 3) (Here we consider cases when inanimate nouns take the s-genitive); Examples regarding the category of article determination (2. 4)(in this paragraph we consider cases when the article is used in the linguistic environment that is alien to it). The analysis is supported by the conclusions after each paragraph. Cha pter One Stylistic Resources of the grammatical units on the basis of the English Noun All the linguistic phenomena we consider in the presented work are the subject of a relatively new science that is Stylistic Morphology. The purpose of this chapter is to reveal what have caused its appearing by considering different opinions of linguists and to illustrate the stylistic potential of the English Noun on the basis of some grammatical categories. The chapter starts with an effective approach in mastering a foreign language, namely with the functional one. Paragraph 1. 1 also illustrates the relationship between connotative meanings and functions of the language. Paragraph 1. is devoted to the appearance of Grammatical Stylistics (Stylistic Grammar), its subdivision and contrary judgments concerning its importance. Then attention is paid to the meaning of the grammatical form and to the notion of transposition. In the subsequent part of the chapter there was made an attempt to organize the material on the stylistic potential of the English noun considering the following nounal categories: the category of gender (1. 5. 1); the category of number (1. 5. 2); the category of case (1. 5. 3); the category of article determination (1. 5. 3). 1. 1 Functions of the language and connotative meanings. Nowadays learning a foreign language implies its active practical mastering. What in its turn is quite impossible to do grasping just the system of a language, its standard grammar, language factors which correspond only to the literary norms. The approach that would be more effective in our case is a functional one. More and more linguists come to agree with it today. The Russian linguist Kojina M. [1] said: The indispensable attention to the peculiarities of the usage of language means is the most necessary condition and the most effective method of teaching (the Russian linguist M. Kojina) This statement requires a deep research in the stylistic usage of language means, taking into consideration both expressive and functional nature of stylistic phenomena. Functions of the language are indissolubly connected with the usage of any of its elements. In other words, the emergence of connotative meanings depends on the functions of the language. As to the latter, there are many different opinions concerning their number. But the absolute majority of linguists agree on the point that the language is polyfunctional. For instance, R. Jackobson distinguishes the following six functions[2]: . Referential, that implies orientation onto the context; 2. Emotive, that is the function of the expression of the speaker’s will, feelings; 3. Poetic; 4. Conative, that implies orientation onto the addressee; 5. Metalingual, that is the function that provides the possibility to speak about the language by means of the language; 6. Phatic, that implies the establishment of the contact . So the emotive function, for example, implies the intention to give way to emotions that, in its turn, causes appearing of the emotionally expressive connotation. Each function gives birth to certain stylistic shadows. And it is no accident that in any living language there exist stylistic connotations with their heterogeneous character that is determined by the variety of the functions, Now going slightly back to the first point of this paragraph we would like to continue it by mentioning that the functional approach in mastering foreign languages requires first of all revealing stylistic resources of the language units of its different levels including grammatical ones. The famous Russian linguist V. Vinogradov[3] once mentioned: The stylistics of the national †¦ language includes al its sides – its phonetic system, Grammar, Word-stock and Phraseology. So far in Stylistics much attention has been paid mainly to the analysis in the field of Word stock. But the success in the late elaboration of the problems of Functional Stylistics allows the linguists to apply the stylistic analysis also to Grammar (including Morphology). 1. 2 Grammatical Stylistics or Stylistic Grammar The modern stage of the development of Linguistics is characterized by appearing of new disciplines at the meeting point of old ones. Grammar and Stylistics are closely connected with each other. As a result, a new branch of linguastylistics has already appeared. That is Grammatical Stylistics or Stylistic Grammar. The basic aim of Grammatical Stylistics implies study of stylistic means (both expressive and functional) of grammatical units. Grammatical Stylistics can be subdivided into morphological and syntactical one. But if the Stylistic means of Syntax are not usually cast upon doubt those of Morphology on contrary are. There are some rather skeptical judgments (A,M. Peshkovski, A. N. Gvozdev, A. Alonso). Acknowledging only Syntactical Stylistics the Spanish linguist Martin Alonso writes[4]: Style is not Morphology; it is connected not with the word but with the sentence. However, this understanding of the Stylistic role of Morphology according to Firsova I. cannot be considered right. [5] It narrows the limits of Stylistics. According to the fact that the object of Stylistics implies the language in the process of its usage the stylistic analysis must embrace all the levels of the language including the morphological one. The observation proves the point of view of those linguists who consider that morphological units have stylistic possibilities and must be the subject of Stylistics. The traditional idea regarding the insignificance of Stylistic recourses of Morphology is the result of insufficient study of the material. Stylistic Morphology has a number of objects of study. This is on the one hand the subsystem of the means of word-building and on the other hand the subsystem of categorical grammatical forms. In the present work we are going to deal with the second one. 1. 3 The meaning of the grammatical form In order to realize better the stylistic potential of the morphological means it is important to consider the structure of their meaning. In this work attention is going to be paid to the grammatical form. Its meaning is not something homogeneous. It can have two elements of meaning: denotative and connotative. The first implies what the grammatical form denotes itself that is its grammatical meaning. The second element implies a complication by any kind of stylistic information (of both emotional and logical character). The connotative meaning of the units of the morphological level implies their ability to evoke in our consciousness secondary associations of emotional or logical character connected with our experience. In some cases the expression of different emotions, evaluation and also of functional stylistic connotations is realized by breaking usual valency relations. What we are speaking about is transposition. That is the divergence between the traditional meaning and that which is prompted by the context on the level of Morphology. And now at this stage let us consider stylistic potential of the English noun on the basis of some grammatical categories. 1. 4 Noun in different functional styles The noun plays a very important role among the morphological resources of any language including, of course, English. That is determined according the Russian linguist Golub I. [6] by: †¢ its semantic features; †¢ quantitative predominance over other parts speech; †¢ potential figurative and expressive means. â€Å"The noun as a part of speech according to Blokh M. I. has the categorial meaning of â€Å"substance† or â€Å"thingness†[7]. It is impossible to express an idea without the latter that is why the use of nouns is an obligatory condition for any speech act. Golub I. mentions that their frequency of use fluctuates depending on the content of the text; the style it belongs to; the peculiarities of author’s intention. Style influences over the choice of words, their forms and their place in the sentence. This correlation of style and words influence greatly over the composition of linguistic units. Nouns are often very much needed in so-called bookish styles: the scientific prose, newspaper, publicistic styles and also that of official documents. That is determined by the necessity to name institutions, persons, their activities, etc. The use in the belles-lettres style is determined by the creative purpose of the author, the way he or she resolves certain stylistic tasks. Here the noun fulfils not only the informative function but also an aesthetic one. A stylistically neutral noun can be involved into the system of expressive means of the language and so it gets expressive connotation[8] . 1. 5. Stylistic Potential of the English noun 1. 5. 1 Stylistic Potential of the category of gender In Old English all nouns were classified as masculine, feminine or sometimes neuter based entirely on grammatical considerations, not on sex or the lack of it. They were referred to by pronoun declensions that also were subdivided according to grammatical gender. Since then the language has undergone a great variety of big and small changes. The system of grammatical gender was not an exception. Since the 12th to 15th centuries most of the gender distinctions has disappeared. [9] Basing on the fact that the noun in Contemporary English does not possess any special gender forms and the accompanying adjective, pronoun, article does not agree with the head –noun (Compare: Engl. a young lady, a young man, a young tree and Russ. , , ) some linguists (M. Ganshina, N. Vasilevskaia[10], A. I. Smirnitsky[11],G. Leech and J. Svartvik[12], I. G. Koshevaya[13], etc) conclude that in Modern English there is no grammatical gender. What English nouns now have is according to them natural gender1 that stipulates the sex of the referent or its lack of it. So all the nouns can be subdivided into three classes according to their lexical meaning: masculine (referred to as he) – names of male beings, feminine (referred to as she) – names of female beings, neuter (referred to as it) – names of lifeless things and abstract notions2: Masculine:father, brother, boy Feminine:mother, girl, sister Neuter:computer, lamp, beauty, friendship Now let us consider another point of view namely that of Blokh M. [14] that a bit differs from the one already mentioned above. In her book â€Å"Theoretical Grammar† she agrees that the gender division of noun in English is expressed as nounal classification (not as variable forms of words). The question remains, Blokh M. continues, whether this classification has any serious grammatical relevance. She gives some arguments that support the positive answer to this question (see below). In the conclusions to the chapter we can read: †¦ the category of gender in English is inherently semantic, i. . meaningful in so far as it reflects the actual features of the named objects. But the semantic nature of the category does not in the least make it into â€Å"non-grammatical†Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ So, as we can see, Blokh M. considers the category of gender as a grammatical one. In the book she presents it by means of the binary privative opposition. (It is a type of opposition that is formed by a contrastive pair of members in which one member is characterized by the presence of a certain differential feature (â€Å"mark†), while the other member is characterized by the absence of this feature. The member in which the feature is present is called â€Å"marked† or â€Å"weak† or â€Å"positive† (â€Å"+†); the member in which the feature is absent is called â€Å"unmarked†, â€Å"weak† or â€Å"negative† (â€Å"-†)). It is expressed by the correlation of nouns with the personal pronouns of the third person: he, she, and it. The category is formed by two oppositions that are related to each other on a hierarchical basis. According to the upper opposition all nouns can be subdivided into two groups: person (human) nouns [strong member] and non-person (non-human) nouns [weak member]. Within the subset of person nouns the lower opposition divides them into masculine [weak member] and feminine [strong member] (Fig. 1) Figure 1:1 Oppositional structure of the category of gender[15] (according to Blokh M. ) â€Å"+†- strong member â€Å"-†- weak member A lot of English nouns can express both feminine and masculine person genders. They are referred to as nouns of the â€Å"common gender† (i. e. doctor, teacher, president, etc. ). This capability of expressing both genders makes the category variable. On the other hand, when there is no need to indicate the sex of the person referents of these nouns, they are used neutrally as masculine. Another interesting interpretation of gender in the English language found we in â€Å"A University Grammar of English† by R. Quirk,etc[16]. Its authors say that some pronouns are gender-sensitive (the personal he, she, it and the relative who, which), but others are not (they, some, these, etc). Basing on the pattern of pronoun substitutions for singular nouns they distinguish ten gender classes ( see Fig. 2). Figure 1:2 Gender classes[17] (according to Quirk R. , Greenbaum S. Leech G, etc) |Gender classes |Examples |Pronoun substitution | |animate | | | |masculine ______ |uncle___aunt____ |who –he________________ | |feminine_______ |doctor__ |who- she________________ | |dual___________ |baby____ |who – he/she____________ | |common _______ |family__ |who-he/she/? it, which – it__ | |collective_______ |bull____ |which- it, who – they______ | |masculine higher_ animal_________ | |which – it/ (? who) – he____ | |feminine higher__ animal_________ |cow____ | | |higher organism__ | |which – it/ (? ho)-she)____ | |lower animal____ |France__ | | | |ant_____ |which – it/she____________ | | | |which-it________________ | |Inanimate | | | |inanimate_______ |Box |Which –it______________ | There are certain rules about what nouns can be regarded to as masculine, feminine and neuter. Some times they are broken in order to achieve a certain goal. At this stage it would be quite logic if we consider some of such cases grouping them in two sets where 1. A masculine or a feminine noun is used as neuter; 2. A neuter noun is used as a masculine or a feminine one. 1. A masculine or a feminine noun is used as neuter (depersonification) Dealing with this topic the Russian linguist Screbnev I. gives among several examples this one[18]: â€Å"Where did you find it? †- asked Mord Em’ly of Miss Gilliken with a satirical accent. â€Å"Who are you calling ‘it’† – demanded Mr. Barden aggressively. P’r’aps you’ll kindly call me I’m and not it† (W. Partridge) [19] So here Miss Gilliken is referred to with the pronoun it . A feminine noun becomes neuter. By doing this the speaker shows his neglect, he is probably m ocking at her and considers that she is not worth being respected. 2. A neuter noun is used as either feminine or masculine. Let us start considering the second set with animate nouns that are regarded to as neuter, namely with animals. The main purpose of such usage according to Ganshina M. , Vasilevskaya N. [20] is to create a certain image. In tales, for example, the choice of gender greatly depends on the personal qualities the author ascribes to the animal: Wait a minute,† said the monkey proudly, â€Å"I can climb. † He ran quickly up the tree and threw the rich ripe fruit to the ground. Next day the Rabbit went to see his friend the sable: she had many daughters and forest people always came to see her. [21] In general they say all nouns denoting animals can be substituted by the pronoun it and so considered neuter: We found the horse in its stable. [22] And summarizing everything M. Ganshina and V. Vasilevskaya come to the following conclusion: the lower the ani mal in the scale, the more exclusively is the noun denoting it referred to in the neuter gender. And so nouns denoting birds, fishes, insects and reptiles and generally considered s neuter: The snake crept into its hole. [23] According to G. Leech we use he or she for animals when we think of them as having the personal qualities of human beings (e. g. family pets): Have you given Rover his dog-biscuits. [24] Alice Macline singles out two types of nouns: ones that indicate the sex of the animals and ones that don’t. Let us illustrate them by the following examples[25]: Nouns indicate the sex of the animals do not indicate the sex of the animals Male FemaleCommon words bull, steer(cowcattle stallion, gelding(marehorse boarsowpig, hog ramewesheep buckdoedeer cock, rooster, capon*henchicken gandergoosegoose drakeduckduck Mentioning the case when the sex of the animal is not indicated by the noun M. Ganshina says that the nouns that stand for the larger and bolder animals are generally associated with the masculine gender, nouns that stand for the smaller and weaker with feminine:[26] Masculine: elephant, horse, dog Feminine: cat, parrot, hare. The elephant lifted his mighty trunk. The cat has upset her milk[27]. Here goes one more observation made by M. Ganshina concerning names of animals, the latter agree with the feminine pronoun also when their maternal instinct is referred to: A bird betrays her nest when trying to conceal it. The swallow was teaching her young how to fly. But in the imaginary world of Literature where there are no such traditional associations the writer is free to choose the gender to refer to his/her character in case of personification. Here M. Ganshina gives an example from O. Wilde â€Å"Happy Prince† where the author makes the swallow of masculine gender and the reed of feminine: One night there flew over the city a little Swallow. His friends had gone away to Egypt six weeks before, but he had stayed behind, for he was in love with the most beautiful Reed. He had met her early in the spring as he was flying down the river after a big yellow moth[28]. Sometimes one can refer to some thing that one feels is necessary or very important to him or her, that he or she likes very much with the pronoun he or she. By doing this one as if humanifies () the thing one adores and in this way expresses his or her affection. In terms of gender the neuter noun becomes either feminine (in case it is referred to as she) or masculine (in case it is referred to as he) as in the example given by the Russian linguist Kolpakchi M. : [29]: My typewriter must be easy to reach, he is my second self. Speaking about abstract nouns it is worth mentioning that by changing the gender the English speaker can emphasize his attitude towards it, its importance. While dealing with it in her book Kolpakchi M. A. gives the following example: Peace raised her voice†¦ She says that the author used here the possessive pronoun her (that corresponds to the personal pronoun she) not by mere accident. He or she used it on purpose imagining Peace as a woman, an unwearying fighter for peace. The choice of gender is very subjective. To illustrate this Kolpakchi M. A. gives the following two examples: Because I could not step for death, He kindly stepped for me. E. Dickenson Death was not there. It must have gone around another street. E. Hemingway Speaking about the impending death E. Dickenson, for example, made the latter masculine. Hemingway, on the contrary, referred to it with the pronoun it making it neuter. And so the reader gets the idea according to Kolpakchi M. A. that E. Dickenson imagined death as a man and Hemingway who had seen a lot of cases of death considered it an ordinary thing not personifying it. Now let us consider one more thing, namely zoomorphisms. These are the words that denote animals, birds, or fantastic creatures but are used to refer to people. The Russian linguist I. V. Arnold says that in this case they get a metaphorical emotionally colored and often offensive connotation[30]. She mentions that it can be easily noticed if we compare direct and metaphorical meanings of the following words: ass, beast, bitch, donkey, duck, mule, pig, swine, tabby, toad, wolf, worm, etc. Here are two examples with such metaphorically employed words in the context that gives Arnold I. V while considering zoomorphisms[31]: 1. I was not going to have all the old tabbies bossing her around just because she is not what they call â€Å"our class† (A. Wilson The Middle Age) In this example the speaker calls the ladies she does charity work with old tabbies. Arnold I. V mentions that in the same chapter but a bit earlier the narrator says that she (the speaker) regarded them as fools and did not hesitate to tell him so. That supports the idea that the word tabbies is used here emotionally. 2. What were you talking about to that old mare downstairs? S. Delaney) While reading the sentence you as if see the speaker pronouncing it with scorn, probably hatred. Alongside with the emotional connotation these words can also have an expressive, stylistic (colloquial) one. I. V. Arnold notices that when the words that name animals have synonyms, the latter can differ in intensi ty and character of connotation[32]. She illustrate this by giving the following examples: pig, monkey, donkeyswine, ass, ape can express irony together with affection. can sound rude, offensive. Here goes an example provided by Arnold I. V. of a zoomorphism in the context: E. g. â€Å"Don’t be such a donkey, dear† (C. P. Snow) Negative connotations according to the same Russian linguist can be intensified by means of different epithets, emphatic constructions: you impudent pup, you filthy swine, you lazy dog, that big horse of a girl[33]. Now let us go on with inanimate nouns. They can be substituted by the pronouns which, it and so treated as neuter. But sometimes they can be personified and the nouns that denote them are referred to either as belonging to the masculine or the feminine gender. Here are some traditional associations that Ganshina M and Vasilevskaya N distinguish[34]: 1. The nouns moon, earth are considered feminine, sun masculine: It is pleasant to watch the sun in his chariot of gold, and the moon in her chariot of pearl. (Wilde) The earth awoke from her winter sleep. 2. Those abstract nouns that suggest such ideas as strength, fierceness, courage, etc are considered masculine (anger, death, fear). The ones that are associated with gentleness, beauty are referred to as feminine (spring, peace, dawn). Names of countries can be substituted by either the pronoun it or she. So they can be considered either neuter or feminine. The choice depends on their use. According to Leech G. if the country is seen as a political or cultural unit rather than as geographical unit it is treated as feminine: Last year France increased her exports by 10 per cent. [35] Otherwise it is treated as neuter: Ireland is an island, on three sides it is washed by the Atlantic Ocean1 In sport the name of a country according to Quirk R. can stand for the team that represent her and be referred to as a personal collective noun: France have improved their chance of winning the cup. [36] In this class Quirk also places ships and other entities towards which an affectionate attitude is expressed by a personal substitute (ship, boat, steamer, car, etc): What a lovely ship. What is she called? He also mentions that a proud owner of a sports car may refer to it as she or perhaps as he if the owner is female. When a nonpersonal abstract noun (neuter) in the sentence stands for a personal one it becomes he (masculine) or she (femenine). The Russian linguist Arnold I. V. entions that in case of transposition of nonpersonal abstract nouns (used as personal) some emotional or expressive connotations appear[37]. She gives the following examples: The chubby little eccentricity::a chubby eccentric child; He is a disgrace to his family::he is a disgraceful son; The old oddity ::a n odd old person. From the point of view of sociology it is worth mentioning the sexist language here while speaking about the gender. It can be defined as â€Å"speech and writing that make unnecessary distinctions based on sex† (A. Macline). Some people do not like using occupational terms that show the sex of the person who is doing the work. They substitute them for nonsexist equivalents[38] : TraditionalNonsexist stewardessflight attendant postmanpostal worker chairman chairperson or chair salesladysalesperson or salesclerk According to â€Å"Book of English Usage†[39] some of the most interesting changes that have taken place in the English language over the last 30 years have been driven by the desire to avoid sexism in the language. This reform movement differs from most previous ones based on a desire for English to be more logical, more efficient in expression. The book says that the reforms involving gender are explicitly political in intent and represent a quest for social justice rather than a wish for more consistent logic. The author of this chapter considers that this movement has been remarkably successful by historical standards. A glance at any newspaper or five minutes in front of the television news will produce evidence to show that people are changing their language to accommodate concerns about fairness to both sexes. It is undeniable that large numbers of men and women are uncomfortable using constructions that have been criticized for being sexist. Since there is little to be gained by offending people in one’s audience, it makes sense to educate oneself about the issues involved and to try to accommodate at least some of these concerns. The use of the sexist language can sometimes lead to ambiguity. There is an example with the term policemen in the book. While using it, it is not clear whether the speaker is excluding women police officers or whether he or she allows the term stand for the entire police force. Another problem is that not everyone perceives the sexist language the same way. People have different levels of sensitivity on these matters and everyone must find a level that suits him or her. Some people not object to using the generic he, but avoid the generic use of compounds ending in –man. Some are not comfortable using the form fellow, as in fellow colleagues, to refer to women. That complicates the matter. Finally, it is important to remember that avoiding sexist terms and constructions is no guarantee that what one has written will be free of gender bias. Sexist stereotypes, such as the assumption that all nurses are women or that all executive are men, can seem like the status quo – the way the world is- especially when one is distracted by a deadline or concerned about some other feature of his or her writing, such as organization or its tone. Sexist assumptions can be insidious. A headline that reads â€Å"Allegations Embroil Financier and Woman† may seem innocuous at first, but if the article shows the woman to be a financier as well, one have to wonder about the politics of the headline editor, who has assumed that a financier must naturally be a man and that a woman’s professional status is somehow not worth mentioning[40]. . 5. 2ylistic Potential of the category of number The category of number is expressed by the opposition of the plural form to the singular one. The strong member is the plural. Basing on the quantitative characteristics of the nouns two groups can be distinguished: countable and uncountab le. Countable nouns refer to people, places, or things that can be counted (one dollar/two dollars, one house, two houses). They [these countable nouns] can always be made plural usually by adding â€Å"s† or some other variation of the plural ending (student(s), countri(es), child(ren). A few words are the same in both the singular and plural forms (deer, sheep). Uncountable nouns often refer to food, beverages, substances, or abstractions (meat, tea, steel, information); some uncountable nouns (but not the abstract ones) can be made countable by adding a â€Å"count frame† in front of them (two gallons of milk, six blocks of ice, a bar of soap, a bunch of celery). The nouns of the second group are treated as either singular or plural and are usually referred to as singularia tantum (peace, love, friendship) [only singular] and pluralia tantum (scissors, trousers, spectacles) [only plural]. M. I. Blokh[41] refers to them as absolute singular and the absolute plural. Unfortunately, there is not clear-cut distinction between countable and uncountable nouns. Some nouns can be both countable and uncountable even without adding count frames. For example, as an uncountable noun, experience refers to abstract knowledge or skill that can be gained by observing or participating in events. As a singular or plural countable noun (experience/experiences), the word â€Å"experience† refers to a particular instance (or instances) of participation in events. Similarly, the uncountable noun â€Å"glass† is a substance made from silicates; â€Å"a glass† (singular) is something you drink from; and â€Å"glasses† (plural) are frames containing lenses that correct imperfect vision[42]. There are other exceptions to the countable/uncountable distinction as well. Moreover, a noun that is countable in one’s native language may be uncountable in English, and vice-versa. For example, â€Å"watch† is countable in English but uncountable in Russian. However, as long as we are aware of these differences they probably will not cause us much difficulty. The Guide to Grammar and Writing [43] says that a special situation exists when a subject seems not to agree with its predicate. For instance, when we want each student to see his or her counselor (and each student is assigned to only one counselor), but we want to avoid that â€Å"his or her† construction by pluralizing, do we say â€Å"Students must see their counselors† or â€Å"Students must see their counselor†? The singular counselor is necesssary to avoid the implication that students have more than one counselor apiece. Do we say â€Å"Many sons dislike their father or fathers†? We don't mean to suggest that the sons have more than one father, so we use the singular father. Theodore Bernstein, in Dos, Don'ts and Maybes of English Usage, says that â€Å"Idiomatically the noun applying to more than one person remains in the singular when (a) it represents a quality or thing possessed in common (â€Å"The audience's curiosity was aroused†); or (b) it is an abstraction (â€Å"The judges applied their reason to the problem†), or (c) it is a figurative word (â€Å"All ten children had a sweet tooth†) (203). Sometimes good sense will have to guide you. We might want to say â€Å"Puzzled, the children scratched their head† to avoid the image of multi-headed children, but â€Å"The audience rose to their foot† is plainly ridiculous and about to tip over. In â€Å"The boys moved their car/cars,† the plural would indicate that each boy owned a car, the singular that the boys (together) owned one car (which is quite possible). It is also possible that each boy owned more than one car. One should be prepared for such situations, and consider carefully the implications of using either the singular or the plural. One might have to avoid the problem by going the opposite direction of pluralizing: moving things to the singular and talking about what each boy did[44]. There are cases when the opposition of the singular to the plural is neutralized when a change of meaning, attitude is involved. Let us consider some examples organizing them in the following groups: A) countable: the plural stands for the singular and vice versa B) Countable nouns: repetition groups C) Uncountable nouns: the plural form results in expressive transposition 1. ountable: the plural stands for the singular and vice versa The example below shows that such nouns as committee can be substituted either with the singular pronoun it or the plural pronoun they (without changing the number in the noun). R. Quirk and other authors of â€Å"A University Grammar of English† say that the differenc e reflects a difference in attitude: the singular stresses the non-personal collectivity of the group and the plural the personal individuality within the group: 1. The committee has met and it has rejected the proposal. The committee have met and they have rejected the proposal [45] Here are similar examples: 2. The family were gathered round the table. 3. The government are unanimous in disapproving the move of the opposition. In the subsequent cases (when the plural implies the singular and vice versa) the relation of the whole to its parts comes to the foreground. The varieties of transfer (‘whole –part’ and ‘part – whole’) are called synecdoche, which itself is the simplest case of metonymy: 4. â€Å"How dare he talk like that to ladies? † (there is only one lady present) 5. â€Å"Now what’s that? Reading books instead of working? † (the delinquent is certainly reading one book at the moment) 6. â€Å"This is what the student is supposed to know† (every student, a number of students, all those who study the subject: the singular stands for the plural)[46] 2. Countable nouns: repetition groups Indefinitely large quantity can be intensely presented by means of repetition groups. The nouns in them can be used either in the plural or in the singular: There were trees and trees all around us. I lit cigarette after cigarette. This variety of plural can be considered as a peculiar analytical form in the marginal sphere of the category of number[47]. (C)Uncountable nouns: the plural form results in expressive transposition As it has been mentioned above the English noun has both the singular and the plural forms. But there is a restriction on this general rule: proper, abstract, material nouns have just one form. And if the restriction is ignored some particular meanings, connotations are restricted. The plural form of the following nouns in bold type intensifies large quantity: E. g. : the sands of the desert; †¢ the fruits of the toil; †¢ Waters on a starry night are beautiful and fair. (W. Wordsworth) †¢ But where are the snows of yesterday? (F. Villon) It plays not the last role in making the description more graphic. M. I. Blokh calls it  "descriptive uncountable plural†. 1. 5. 3 Stylistic Potential of the category of case This category is expressed in the English language by the opposition of the genitive or possessive case to the common case. The strong member is the first one. Functionally, those two case systems relate to one another in a very peculiar way. If the common form is not restricted in its uses, the genitive one is. It is restricted to the functions that have a parallel expression by prepositional constructions. To illustrate the complex nature of the genitive Blokh M. distinguishes the following basic semantic types of the genitive[48] : †¢ â€Å"the genitive of possessor† E. g. : Christine’s living room (the living room belongs to Christine), Dad’s earnings, Kate and Jerry’s grandparents. †¢ â€Å"the genitive of integer† (â€Å"organic possession†) E. g. : Jane’s busy hands (the busy hands as part of Jane’s person), Patrick’s voice, the hotel’s lobby. †¢ â€Å"the genitive of agent† E. g. : the great man’s arrival (the great man arrives), Peter’s insistence, the hotel’s competitive position. â€Å"the genitive of patient† E. g. : the champion’s sensational defeat (the champion is defeated), Erick’s final expulsion. †¢ â€Å"the genitive of destinationâ₠¬  E. g. : women’s footwear (footwear for women), children’s verses, a fisher’s tent. In some postmodified noun phrases it is possible to use an ’s genitive by affixing the inflection to the final part of the postmodification rather than to the head noun itself. Thus: The teacher’s room The teacher of music’s room This group genitive is regularly used with such posmodifications as in someone else’s house, the heir apparent’s name, as well as prepositional phrases. Other examples involve coordinations: n hour and a half’s discussion a week or so’s sunshine. [49] The group genitive is not normally acceptable following a clause, though in colloquial use one sometimes hears examples like[50]: Old man what-do-you-call-him’s house has been painted A man I know’s son has been injured in a railway accident. In normal use, especially in writing, such s-genetives would be replaced by of-genitive: The son of a man I know has been injured in a railway accident. Now let us consider the combination â€Å"of + genitive case† (a friend of my brother’s) or â€Å"of + possessive pronoun† (a friend of mine). According to Ganshina M. , Vasilevskaya N. t has usually partitive, denoting â€Å"one of†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Here are some examples[51]: He is a friend of my brother’s (= one of my brother’s friends); It is a book of mine (=one of my book); It is a novel of Galsworthy’s (= one of his novels). The say that sometimes this meaning can be lost and the construction acquires emotional force (denoting praise, pleasure, displeasure, etc) or becomes purely descriptive: We all admired that clever remark of his. That cottage of my friend’s is surrounded by a beautiful garden. It was really surprising that he had been able to find this small island of ours at all. Is she a particular friend of yours? A friend of the doctor’s has arrived[52]. In Modern English the use of the genitive case is restricted chiefly to nouns denoting living beings. In the following examples provided by Ganshina M. , Vasilevskaya N. the use of the genitive case is closely connected with personification:[53] 1. with the nouns sun, moon, earth: The sun’s (his) rays are very hot at noon in summer. The moon’s (her) shadow swept over the lake. And each flower and herb on Earth’s dark breast rose from the dreams of its wintry rest. (Shelly) 2. with the nouns ship, boat, vessel The ship’s crew were all asleep. 3. with the names of countries: Moscow is Russian’s greatest scientific and cultural centre. 4. with abstract nouns (especially in poetry) Night’s candles are burnt out, and jocund day stands tiptoe on the misty mountain top. But that does not exhaust the stylistic potential of the genitive case. It was mentioned in  «  » by Arnold[54] that the use of the inflected form is characteristic of newspaper headlines not only because of space economy but also because this form emphasizes the attribute. Comparing Hollywood’s Studios Empty with The Studios of Hollywood empty they prefer the first variant. Now let us consider one more point of view regarding the ’s and of-phrase. E. G. Rappoport[55] says that ’s expresses indissoluble connection between the whole and its part. Of ,on the contrary, characterizes such a relation between the whole and its part when the latter is understood as something that exists on its own. The author gives then an example from the novel by Galsworthy â€Å"The White Monkey†. Michael and Soms are waiting for Fleur’s baby to be delivered: Michael had his right arm tight across his chest, Soames his left. They formed a pattern, thus side by side. (Both were rather strained. ) Then Soames says, â€Å"Listen! †Sounds – different – confused! Michael’s hand seized something, gripped it hard; it was cold, thin – the hand of Soames. So Mike at first perceived Soames’ hand (the hand of Soames) as an object (something) . It doesn’t come to him at once that he has gripped his father’s-in-law hand. Michael’s hand, on the contrary, represents a closer unity and it is equal to Michael. 1. 5. 4 Stylistic Potential of the category of article determination The category of article determination is not universally manifestable. The categorial forms â€Å"determination-indetermination† are neutralized when either the definite or indefinite article is omitted although it should precede the noun or the noun group. But the neutralization (absence of the article) is stylistically heterogeneous. Most depends on what sublanguage the text belongs, on the circumstances of communication. It is known that absence of articles is typical of headlines to newspaper columns (the sublanguage used in newspaper headlines is jocularly called Headlinese – by analogy with Chinese, Portuguese, etc)[56]: Prime Minister Talks on Middle East Events Police Seek Mystery Assailant Miner Sentenced to Death Picket Tried to Hold up Train Skrebnev I. M. gives also the following example that demonstrates absence: Quadruped. Graminivorous. Forty teeth, namely twenty-four grinders, four eye-teeth and twelve incisive. Sheds coat in the spring; in marshy countries sheds hoofs too. Hoofs hard but requiring to be shod with iron. Age known by marks in mouth†. That is an extract from the speech of an exemplary pupil of the famous â€Å"school of facts†, Bitzer by name (Hard Times by Charles Dickens). The boy, on being asked to define a horse, talks as if he were asked to reproduce word for word the text of some reference book (in books of this kind articles are often omitted). So there is no article in particular types of abbreviated language[57]: †¢ newspaper headlines (Girls dies in Fire) †¢ dictionary deginitions (Crystal = substance solidified in geometrical form) †¢ instructions (Read instructions first. Check plug. Select correct speed. ) †¢ telegrams (Sign contract immediately. Letter follows. ) Sometimes articles are omitted in careless colloquial speech. To demonstrate this Skrebnev I remembers the well-known scene I of Pygmalion by B. Shaw where one of the by-standers says in Eliza Doolittle’s defence: Girl never said a word to him (instead of The girl†¦) Articles are also eliminated in many Pidgins as well as in a number of languages like, for example, Russian. â€Å"Bring me dog†, would possibly be more meaningful in context of the moment, than in some literary sense[58]. Article causes a considerable amount of confusion for speakers of most of the world’s other languages, who seem to get on rather well without them. Even between British and American usage one finds subtle differences in nuance or emphasis. For example, Americans usually say someone is in the hospital, much as they could be at the bank or in the park. To the British this sounds like there is only one hospital, just as they would say a child is at school or a criminal in prison. This is because they are thinking more of the primary activities that take place within those institutions rather than the buildings in which they are housed. If, however, you are merely visiting one of these places, you are at the hospital, at the school or at the prison. Considering this category in â€Å"Theoretical grammar† M. I. Blokh distinguishes two levels of opposition. On the first level the definite article is contrasted with the indefinite and zero-article being the strong member because of its identifying and individualizing function, while the other forms are referred to as the weak member as they leave the feature (â€Å"identification†) unmarked. On the second level the two types of generalization are contrasted: relative and absolute. The first one is interpreted as the strong member (the indefinite article and the meaningful absence of the article as its analogue with uncountable nouns and nouns in the plural); the second one accordingly as the weak member of the opposition (the meaningful absence of the article). (Fig 1:3) Fig. 1:3 The category of article determination (according to Blokh M. ) Article determination IdentificationNon-identification The +A (N)/? – Relative generalizationAbsolute generalization (â€Å"Classification†)(â€Å"Abstraction†) A (N)/ ? 1 + ? 2 – The article may occasionally be used with an uncharacteristic nounal collocation. It is worth considering now some of such cases starting with instances that involve the indefinite article: According to Blokh M[59] it†¦ †¢ can be used with a nounal collocation of normally individualizing meaning: After all, you’ve got a best side and a worst side of yourself and it’s no good showing the worst side and harping on it. (A. Christie) †¢ It may occasionally be used with a unique referent noun: Ted Latimer from beyond her murmured: â€Å"The sun here isn’t a real sun†. The choice of the adjective in this case is rather subjective. To illustrate this Kolpakchi M. A. gives the following example. The moon that seemed to Onegin foolish, can seem to somebody else mocking or ominous. 60] †¢ Being used before a proper name it can indicate a person whose exact identity has not been established: There is a Miss Frost waiting for you[61]. †¢ Being used before a proper noun according to Arnold I. V. it can create an evaluative m etaphorical connotation: I do not claim to be a Caruso=I don’t think that I sing well; I do not claim to be Caruso=I don’t say that my name is Caruso[62]. The connotation can be either positive or negative. In the following example also provided by Arnold I. V. the evaluation is undoubtfully positive: A century ago there may have been no Leibnitz, but there was a Gauss, a Faraday and a Darwin. (N. Viner Cybernetics) The indefinite article in this case emphasizes appreciation of their role in the development of science. However, very often when the indefinite article stands before a proper name of an undistinguished person it may render a negative connotation (it can point out, for example, to some demerits,etc). Here Arnold I. V. gives the following example: He was not a Bagster (GGreen The main point). -He does not want to be like Bagster. Being used before a proper noun the indefinite article can reveal one more meaning, namely belonging to a famous family. In this case it always reveals an evaluative connotation: Elisabeth was a Tudor – Elisabeth possessed some family traits of the noble kin. Here go some other cases that involve the definite article: Proper nouns are names of particular people, places, and things (John F. Kennedy, New York City, Notre Dame Cathedral), and for that reason they are inherently definite. Nevertheless, the definite article is not used with most singular proper nouns. For example, if you are referring to your friend George, you wouldn't say â€Å"The George and I went to a movie last night. † The only times â€Å"the† is used with a name like this are: a) when the speaker wants to be emphatic, as in â€Å"the Elizabeth Taylor† (to emphasize that you are talking about the famous actress, and not about another woman with the same name)[63]. Here goes another example provided by BlokhM Know my partner? Old Robinson. Yes, the Robinson. Don’t you know? The notorious Robinson. (J Conrad Lord Jim) Being used with a proper noun, it refers to one particular individual[64]: Is he the Stephen Spielberg, the film director? b) when the speaker is actually using the name as a common noun, as in â€Å"the George that I introduced you to last night† (the real meaning of this phrase is â€Å"the man named George†¦ â€Å"). Plural names, on the other hand, are always preceded by the: the Johnsons, the Bahamas, etc[65]. Now let us consider two other cases that involve the zero article: †¢ It may be occasionally used with an ordinary concrete noun the emantic nature of which stands in sharp contradiction to the idea of uncountable generalization[66]: The glasses had a habit of slipping down her button nose which did not have enough bridge to hold them up (S. M. Disney) †¢ The Russian linguist Arnold I. V. m entions that together with countable nouns it makes them abstract and considers the following example: There head falls forward, fatigued at evening, And dreams of home, Waving from window, spread of welcome, Kissing of wife under single sheet; But waking sees Bird-flocks nameless to him, through doorway voices Of new men making another love. In this poem by V. Oden Wanderer extreme tiredness of the Wanderer is rendered according to Arnold I. V. by means of abstract images. This fuzziness helps the reader to feel that home and happiness are just a dream. In all these cases that illustrate the peculiar cases involving the article traces of transposition can be seen. Chapter 2 Analysis of examples taken from fiction on the basis of considered theoretical phenomena Being a practical one Chapter2 illustrates the points mentioned in the previous theoretical chapter by means of about 200 instances. The latter have been taken mostly from works of English and American authors that belong to the belles-lettres style (tales, poetry, short stories). The aim of this chapter is to put the considered theory into practice showing the way the phenomena have been dealt with work out. All the examples were considered in the following way: †¢ Examples regarding the category of gender (2. 1) Here we distinguish two groups: A. A neuter noun used as feminine; B. A neuter noun used as masculine, explaining the purpose of changing the gender. †¢ Examples regarding the category of number (2. 2) In this paragraph we consider some cases when proper, abstract, material nouns are used in the plural form. †¢ Examples regarding the category of case (2. 3) Here we consider cases when inanimate nouns take the s-genitive. †¢ Examples regarding the category of article determination (2. 4) In this paragraph we consider cases when the article is used in the linguistic environment that is alien to it. 1. Analysis of the examples regarding the category of gender As it has been already mentioned in the theoretical chapter the gender division of noun in English is expressed as nounal classification (not as variable forms of words) which has grammatical relevance. The category is expressed by the correlation of nouns with the personal pronouns of the third person singular (he, she, it). That is why the latter accompanies all the considered nouns in the examples of this paragraph. Those that are referred to as he are traditionally considered as masculine, and so accordingly there can be distinguished also feminine (referred to as she) and neuter (referred to as it). There are certain rules about what nouns can be regarded to as masculine, feminine or neuter. Sometimes they are broken in order to achieve a certain goal. Such cases are considered in this paragraph, namely when a normally considered neuter noun is used as feminine or masculine. All the examples are divided accordingly into two groups which are considered separately: 1. A neuter noun is used as feminine 2. A neuter noun is used as masculine. In each subset we consider (A) cases where the choice of gender is determined by some traditional associations and (B) examples where this choice is free. It is also worth mentioning that all the subsequent instances are connected with personification. 1. A neuter noun is used as feminine A. Traditional choice of gender In the following example the word vessel (that is neutrally referred to as it) is accompanied by the possessive pronoun her that corresponds to the personal pronoun she. This is actually one of the ways of expressing an affectionate attitude towards any kind of vessel, vehicle, which is traditionally, associated with the personal pronoun she: ? There lies the port; the vessel puffs her sail†¦. (A. Tennyson The lady of Sharlott) The same thing will illustrate the following example: ? And why not? he would have asked. If he hadn’t watched every penny all his life he wouldn’t be the owner of the fine ship lying alongside now. What if she was only a small coastal cargo-ship grossing a mere 2053 tons? She was rated Al at Lloyd’s, she would be sailing within the hour with a full cargo, and she was his. He owned and commanded her. (Porteus R. S. A Deal with Father) Here the word of the neuter gender ship is referred to as she and so it becomes feminine. We see that the owner is very proud that â€Å"he owned and commanded her† (personification in this case emphasizes this). Here goes another example from the same short story where the word ship is also used as a feminine noun: ? In the first grey streaks of dawn they sighted her – a pitiful, crippled thing , so far down by the head that the bigger seas broke clean over her foredeck. Captain Wellshot knew her well. Only a few hours ago she had been a fast modern cargo-ship of 10,000 tons, the latest addition to the Greek line. Now she lay with bowed head, wallowing sluggishly as if she no longer had the energy to rise to the seas, content to let them wash over her till they engulfed her completely. From a seaman’s point of view she was nothing but a menace to navigation until she took the final plunge. (Porteous R. S. A Deal with Father) The image of the sinking ship is as if personified here (Captain Wellshot knew her well†¦ She lay with bowed head†¦ ) In the subsequent example the word Moon (that is neutrally referred to as it) is also accompanied by the possessive pronoun her that corresponds to the personal pronoun she. That has a lot to do with personification that is also realized by capitalizing the word Moon and by using with it the participle foretelling (that usually used with animate nouns): ? I see the old Moon in her lap, foretelling The coming-on of rain and squally blast †¦ (Coleridge S. T. Dejection: An Ode) Traditionally such abstract nouns that suggest such ideas as gentleness, beauty, etc are associated with the feminine gender. The subsequent three sentences with examples illustrate this. In the first one the word autumn that is normally referred to as it is substituted by the personal pronoun she. So being a neuter noun it is used as feminine. That makes us imagine a nice woman who â€Å"gave golden fruit to every garden†: The Autumn gave golden fruit to every garden, but to the Giant’s garden she gave none. (Oscar Wilde The Selfish Giant) In the second one the word spring (that is neutrally referred to as it) is substituted by the personal pronoun she and is also referred to by the possessive pronoun her. The personification is realized not only by making the word feminine but also by using it in the possessive case by means of ’s (that is usually used with animate nouns) and by applying to it such words as pantings, kisses, to breathe that are characteristic of human being: ? If spring’s voluptuous pantings when she breathes, Her first sweet kisses, have been dear to me†¦ (Shelley P. B. Alastor or the spirit of solitude) In the third sentence the word Nature (that is neutrally referred to as it) is accompanied by the possessive pronoun her that corresponds to the personal pronoun she. The personification in this case is realized not only by it but also by capitalizing the considered noun and by the accompanying words wedding garment, shroud that are employed metaphorically: ? O Lady! We receive but what we give, And in our life alone does Nature live: Ours is her wedding-garment, ours her shroud! (Coleridge S. T. Dejection: An Ode) B. Free choice of gender In the imaginary world of literature when there are no such traditional associations, the choice of gender greatly depends on the personal qualities the author ascribes to the animal or to any object that becomes alive. The personification in the sentence below is realized not only by referring to the considered noun with the possessive pronoun her but also capitalizing it and by applying to it such phrases as to bow one’s head, to mind one’s charge (that are normally performed by human beings): ? The Cloud descended and the Lily bow’d her modest head And went to mind her numerous charge among the verdant grass. (W. Blake The Book of Thel) The neuter noun snow is referred in the following example by means of the possessive pronoun her that corresponds to the personal pronoun she. The change of the neuter gender into feminine results in personification. The latter is also realized by means of capitalization of the noun and the metaphorically applied to it noun cloak: The Snow covered up the grass with her great white cloak, and the Frost painted all the Trees silver. (Oscar Wilde The Nightingale and the Rose) Personification in the example below is realized by referring to the noun duck as she and also by making her speak as people do (â€Å"You will never be in the best society unless you can stand on your heads,† she kept saying to them). The neuter noun duck is used as feminine. As a result an image of a nice mother who was teaching her children has been created: ? The little ducks were swimming about in the pond, looking just like a lot of yellow canaries, and their mother [duck], who was pure white with real red legs, was trying to teach them how to stand on their heads in the water. You will never be in the best society unless you can stand on your heads,† she kept saying to them; and every now and then she showed them how it was done. (Oscar Wilde The Devoted Friend ) In the following two sentences the word Nightingale (which belongs to the neuter gender) becomes feminine by referring to it as she, her. Personification in this case is also realized by some metaphorically employed words that accompany the considered noun such as to wonder, to understand, to think. As a result the image of a kind creature that is not indifferent to the grief of others is created: ? From her nest in the Holm-oak tree the Nightingale heard him, and she looked out through the leaves and wondered. But the Nightingale underst